Crooked Bough News Round-up

— Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Two dresses and a shawl (museum exhibition)

 

at 12/5/24 8:15am

In the United States, American Indians, both on the reservations and in urban areas, have higher rates of assault, rape, abduction, and murder. Indian women in particular are more likely to go missing (four times that national average) and to be murdered (ten times the national average) than any other group. The Missoula Art Museum (MAM) in Missoula, Montana hosted a special exhibition, We Stand With You: Contemporary Artists Honor The Families Of The Missing And Murdered Indigenous Relative Crisis, guest curated by Rachel Allen (Nimiipuu [Nez Perce]). Note: MMIR = Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives; MMIW = Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women; MMIP - Missing and Murdered Indigenous Persons. According to MAM: “MAM is situated on the traditional, ancestral territories of the Séliš and Ql̓ispé peoples. Exhibitions like this are one of the ways that the museum honors and recognizes this relationship.” Among the works in this special exhibition were two dresses and a shawl. Crow artist Della Big Hair-Stump MMIR Dress made in 2024; mixed media. According to the artist: “My dress represents the MMIW cases of my county – Big Horn & my Apsaalooke (Crow) Tribe. The women’s faces on the front of the dress represent all my Indigenous sisters, the sequin is representing our long Indigenous hair & the feathers represent each MMIW case of Big Horn County.” Little Shell Chippewa artist Carrie Moran McCleary We Are Still Here Shawl made from gaberdine, fringe, satin and velvet ribbon, elk antler buttons, abalone buttons The shawl represents the eight Indigenous home communities in Montana with eight tipis. According to the artist: “Our eight communities share many things. Our cultures and religions are different, but often our families are intertwined. Our kids play basketball together, we see each other at the mall and airports and nod in recognition and we stand up for one another in times of need. Today we also share the MMIP crisis. My shawl represents eight communities looking for justice—justice for missing women, men, children and two-spirit relatives gone but not forgotten, justice from botched police investigations, justice for misleading coroners reports and for promised made and never kept. We are grandmothers, fathers, brothers and sisters looking for change, and looking for recognition of a crisis long swept under the rug. We Are Still Here.” T-Strap Revolution Dress made in 2021 from wool, calico, velvet, felt, leather and glass beads. According to the artist: “The Missing and Murdered Indigenous People crisis is a part of our everyday lives. Not all of this violence results from our non-Indigenous neighbors. Admittedly often times it is what folks call ‘lateral violence’. But the truth is it all results from issues of colonization still affecting Native people was wef function every day.” Note: these photographs were taken on August 22, 2024. More American Indian art Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Crow Artist Linda Pease (museum exhibition) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Cree/Blackfeet artist Valentina LaPier (museum exhibition) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Salish Artist Aspen Decker (museum exhibition) Indians 101: Contemporary Native art in the Portland Art Museum (museum exhibition) Indians 101: The art of Terran Last Gun (museum exhibition) Indians 101: The Sioux Sun Dance (museum exhibition) Indians 101: American Indian modern art by Oscar Howe (museum tour) Indians 101: Glass Art by Northwest Native Carvers and Weavers (Art Diary)

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Art, Indians101, Montana, Museums, NativeAmericanNetroots, CrowIndians, MissoulaArtMuseum, MissingAndMurderedIndigenousRelatives, DellaBigHair-Stump, CarrieMoranMcCleary, LittleShellIndians] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: American Indians and the 1904 St. Louis Louisiana Purchase Exposition

 

at 12/3/24 8:15am

In 1803, the United States purchased from France the right to rule over the vast Louisiana Territory. To explore the new territory and report on its economic potential, the United State sent out the Corps of Discovery under the leadership of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Two centuries later, entrepreneurs in St. Louis, Missouri, put together a celebration commemorating the purchase. This was to be a huge event. Originally scheduled for 1903, the actual opening was delayed until 1904 to allow participation by more states and foreign counties. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally called the St. Louis World’s Fair, included about 200 American Indians and thousands American Indian artifacts taken from prehistoric sites. The Indians were to demonstrate traditional tribal clothing, language, and other cultural features. The Model Indian School The federal government built a Model Indian School to show that Indian children: “… can talk; that they can sing; that they can learn; that they are docile and obedient; that they are human.” Students from Chilocco, Haskell, Genoa, and Sacaton Indian Schools lived at the Model Indian School during the Exposition. Girls from Chilocco demonstrated modern techniques for handling laundry work while boys from the school ran a print shop which produced a daily newspaper. Boys from Haskell demonstrated building wagons and blacksmithing skills ,while the girls demonstrated the domestic arts of sewing, tailoring, and millinery. The boys from Genoa fashioned harnesses. One of the feature attractions was the Montana girls’ basketball team Fort Shaw Indian School, which played against local regional championship teams. They were crowned the World’s Champion Girls’ Basketball Team. According to comments in the visitors’ book, the Fort Shaw girls were one of the major reasons for the popularity of the Model Indian School. Ethnology Exhibit Much of ethnology at the beginning of the twentieth century was still under the influence Lewis Henry Morgan whose evolutionary model saw all peoples going through stages of savagery, barbarism, then civilization. Thus, the purpose of the ethnology exhibit was:  “…to satisfy the intelligent observer that there is a course of progress running from lower to higher humanity, and that all the physical and cultural types of man mark stages in that course.” European-Americans, of course, were depicted as the highest form of humanity and Indians were shown toward the bottom of the scale. According to the display the Kwakiutl were “living examples of the dominant influence of environment on primitive life” while the Cocopa were an example of a group “least removed from the sub-human or quadrumane form.” An Indian village housed representatives from about 20 different tribes. The tribes were arranged in an evolutionary fashion from the least civilized to the most civilized, with the Indian school forming the apex of civilization.   In their book Full-Court Quest: The Girls from Fort Shaw Indian School Basketball Champions of the World, Linda Peavy and Ursula Smith report on the living Indian exhibits: “Navajos would be weaving blankets and fashioning silver jewelry, Apache women would be weaving baskets, Pueblo artists would be shaping pottery, Lakota Sioux would be demonstrating their expertise in beadwork and pipestone carving, and Pomos would be making stone tools and crafting musical instruments.” Among the events was a kind of Olympics comparing the athletic abilities of people classified as Savage, Barbaric, and Civilized. Some of the Indians in the exhibition village, such as Apache war leader Geronimo (ca. 1825-1909), were prisoners of war. Geronimo, the last Indian leader to be held as a prisoner of war, was allowed to be exhibited at the Exposition and to sell his photographs and signature. A special tipi was  constructed for Geronimo and his band. The irony—or insult—in that was that the Apache were not Plains Indians and did not historically live in tipis. Archaeology Nineteenth and early twentieth century archaeology was focused primary on the collection of artifacts and human remains which could be displayed in museums or sold to collectors to finance more archaeology. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition included displays of archaeological materials intended to represent the:  “…mythic symbolism of various tribes as embodied in their decorative arts.” Some states submitted materials and Tennessee sent ceramic bowls with intricate human and animal figures. In her book Sins of the Shovel: Looting, Murder & the Evolution of American Archaeology, Rachel Morgan reports: “These objects had been recovered from graves by various individuals and acquired by the state’s leading antiquarians.” Commercial Exhibits Commercial exhibits at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition sold Indian curios and provided special exhibits. In these exhibits, the Zunis were billed as “the last of the Aztecs” and the Exposition’s Pueblo of Taos was inhabited by Hopi and Zuni Indians. It should be noted that the Zunis are not related to the Aztec culturally or linguistically. While Taos in New Mexico is a pueblo like Hopi and Zuni, the Taos Indians are culturally and linguistically distinct from these two groups. Among the Indian artists at the Exposition were Maria Martinez (1887-1980) and Julian Martinez (1885-1943), potters from San Ildelfonso Pueblo in New Mexico. Shown above is an example of a pot by María Martinez and Julian Martinez on display in the Portland Art Museum. María Martinez is not only one of the most famous American Indian potters, but one of the most famous potters in the world. In an article in American Indian Art, Shelby Tisdale, the Director of the Museum of Indian Arts and Culture, writes: “Maria’s greatest contribution, beyond the styles and processes she pioneered, was that her masterful technique ultimately led to the acceptance of pottery- making as an art form.” Noted Pomo basket weaver Mary Benson demonstrated her skill which people described as astounding. The aboriginal Pomo territory was about 50 miles north of present-day San Francisco. Shown above is an example of a Pomo basket on display in the Maryhill Museum of Art. In his book Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes, Carl Waldman reports: “The Pomos created their beautiful baskets for functional purposes, but collectors now value them as works of fine art. In some Pomo baskets, the weaving is so tight that a microscope is needed to count the stitches.” State Exhibits Several states also had Indian exhibits. The Idaho state exhibit included Indian-made textiles, baskets, and pottery. The Alaska exhibit featured two plank houses, a Haida totem pole, and a resident Nootka (Nuu-chah-nulth) family that made baskets, hats, mats, and carvings. Impact For the American Indians who participated in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, it provided them with employment, with an opportunity to sell their crafts, and travel outside of the reservation. For non-Indians, the Exposition promoted Indian arts and crafts while reinforcing many stereotypes, both racial and cultural.   More American Indian histories Indians 101: The Last Great Indian Council (1909) Indians 101: American Indians and the 1893 World Columbian Exposition Indians 101: The 1915 Ute Indian War Indians 101: the 1923 Posey's War in Utah Indians 201: Indian Nations and Oklahoma statehood Indians 201: American Indians and Theodore Roosevelt Indians 101: Hopi Indians as tourist attractions in the early 20th century Indians 101: Early 20th Century Indian Books

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Geronimo, History, Indians101, Missouri, NativeAmericanNetroots, PomoIndians, FortShawIndianSchool, louisianapurchaseexposition, St.LouisWorldsFair, LewisHenryMorgan, MariaMartinez, JulianMartinez, SanIldelfonsoPueblo, MaryBenson] [Link to media]

— Environmental Groups and Winnemem Wintu Tribe File Lawsuit Against CA State Water Project EIR

 

at 12/2/24 1:20pm

Sacramento — A coalition of environmental and fishing groups and one California Indian Tribe on November 27 filed a lawsuit against the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) alleging that the agency’s approvals and Environmental Impact Report (EIR) for the long term operation of the State Water Project will harm the San Francisco Bay-Delta estuary and imperiled fish species. The parties say the project will cause significant harm to seven endangered or threatened fish species, including Delta Smelt, Longfin Smelt, spring-run Chinook Salmon, winter-run Chinook Salmon, Central Valley Steelhead, White Sturgeon and Green Sturgeon. Delta Smelt have become functionally extinct in the wild, with no Delta Smelt found in the California Department of Fish and Wildlife’s Fall Midwater Trawl Survey for the past six years. The Petitioners and Plaintiffs include the San Francisco Baykeeper, Sierra Club California, Center for Biological Diversity, California Water Impact Network, Restore the Delta, Friends of the River, Golden State Salmon Association, Winnemem Wintu Tribe, AquAlliance and Planning and Conservation League. The lawsuit was filed in the Sacramento County Superior Court.  In case you’re not familiar with it. the State Water Project (SWP) is the massive system operated by DWR for diverting, storing, exporting, and delivering California water. The SWP diverts enormous volumes of fresh water from the Sacramento River and San Joaquin River watersheds and the San Francisco Bay-Delta estuary for export to San Joaquin Valley agribusiness and Southern California water agencies. The SWP includes water, power, and conveyance systems, delivering an annual average of 2.9 million acre-feet of water. (EIR, Ch. 2, Project Description, p. 2-1.) That amount of water roughly translates into three times the 1 million acre feet stored in Folsom Lake on the American River when it is full.  “The operation of the Project significantly degrades environmental conditions in the Sacramento River and San Joaquin River watersheds and San Francisco Bay-Delta estuary, including reduced flows, harm to endangered and threatened fish species and adverse modification of their critical habitat, worsened water quality, increased salinity levels, reduced food supply, and increased harmful algal blooms,” the lawsuit states. “Despite these extensive, negative, and well-documented impacts, DWR implausibly concluded operations of the SWP will have either no impact or less than significant adverse environmental impacts on anything,” the plaintiffs wrote. The groups also said the EIR fails to “provide the full environmental disclosure and analysis” required by the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), a landmark California environmental law. The lawsuit noted that “among the most egregious of the EIR’s inadequacies” as an informational document was its failure to analyze for the benefit of the public information from the State Water Resources Control Board prior to the circulation of the Draft EIR.  The document cites the Water Board’s September 28, 2023 Draft Staff Report/Substitute Environmental Document that “contained extensive information about the crisis, facing native fish species and concluded that it was necessary to increase river flows into and through the Delta—meaning far more water would need to bypass DWR’s diversions and less water would be exported by the SWP.”  “With one hand, DWR commented on the Water Board’s Staff Report/SED by a letter on January 22, 2024, expressing concerns that the proposed requirements to protect endangered and threatened fish species could lead to reductions in freshwater diversions for SWP exports. Yet, DWR failed to analyze for the public any alternative that would have reduced water exports as DWR explained would be necessary under the conditions described in the Staff Report,” the document revealed. Accordingly, the petitioners seek a writ of mandate and declaratory and injunctive relief directing DWR to vacate its approval of the project, the findings for the project, and the certification of the Project EIR, and to revise its findings to conform with the law.  Robert Wright, counsel for Sierra Club California, explained the reasoning behind the lawsuit. “The whole purpose of the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA ) is to require public agencies, when they’re considering approval of a project, to provide full environmental disclosure to the public and the readers of the EIR of the environmental impacts of the project,” said Wright. ”DWR in the draft EIR, which is issued for the purpose of public review and comment, claimed long term operations will have no adverse environmental impact on anything.” “Meanwhile, the Draft EIR was issued in May of 2024, but months earlier in January DWR commented on the State Water Board’s September 2023 proposed Bay-Delta Plan Update,” Wright stated. “DWR indicated that the plan update would have adverse consequences for water exports and that the Water Board’s proposed Bay Delta plan update included extensive information about how the endangered and threatened fish species needed increased flows to avoid extinction.” “The proposed update called for extensive reductions in water exports to both the San Joaquin Valley and to Southern California. That information should have set forth loud and clear in DWR’s draft EIR. Instead DWR said nothing about it except that the Water Board had prepared a proposed plan update. That constituted concealment from the public and was the opposite of everything that CEQA requires to be in a draft EIR,” Wright concluded. The lawsuit was filed as Governor Gavin Newsom continues to push forward with the  controversial Delta Tunnel, Sites Reservoir and the Big Ag-backed voluntary water agreements. A broad coalition of Tribes, environmental NGOs, fishing groups, Delta water agencies, Delta counties, family farmers, environmental justice communities, elected officials and Southern California ratepayers say the Delta Tunnel would hasten the extinction of Sacramento River winter-run and spring-run Chinook Salmon, Delta Smelt, Longfin Smelt, Central Valley Steelhead, Green Sturgeon and White Sturgeon. 

[Author: Dan Bacher] [Category: BigAg, ChinookSalmon, SanJoaquinValley, SouthernCalifornia, StateWaterProject, DeltaSmelt, CEQA, whitesturgeon, greensturgeon, longfinsmelt, SierraClubCalifornia, CentralValleysteelhead, EIR, sitesreservoir, StateWaterBoard, GovernorGavinNewsom, DeltaTunnel, CaliforniaEnvironmentalWaterQualityAct] [Link to media]

— Native American Heritage Day Nov 29, 2024 ?

 

at 11/29/24 2:17pm

? Native American Heritage Day is a civil holiday observed on the day after Thanksgiving in the United States Dk images librar Thanksgiving is known as the National Day of Mourning for many Native Americans, as they believe it celebrates events correlated with the displacement and murder of Natives.[8] Ned Blackhawk, a professor at Yale University, echoed these sentiments -Wikipedia ? Every year, by statute and/or presidential proclamation, the month of November is recognized as National Native American Heritage Month. In 1907 both Charles Curtis of Kansas and Robert Owen of Oklahoma were senators of Native American descent.https://www.senate.gov › generic ? Celebrating National Native American Heritage Month - Senate.gov November is National American Indian Heritage Month The Library of Congress, National Archives and Records Administration, National Endowment for the Humanities, National Gallery of Art, National Park Service, Smithsonian Institution and United States Holocaust Memorial Museum join in paying tribute to the rich ancestry and traditions of Native Americans.Read More  ? Native American Heritage Day Congress passes House Joint Resolution 40 (Pub. L. 111-33), the “Native American Heritage Day Act of 2009”, which designates the Friday immediately following Thanksgiving Day of each year as “Native American Heritage Day.” President Barack Obama signs the legislation on June 26. https://www.bia.gov › NNAHM National Native American Heritage Month | Indian Affairs . The Land Carries Our Ancestors: Contemporary Art by Native Americans Curated by artist Jaune Quick-to-See Smith (Citizen of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Nation), this exhibition brings together works by an intergenerational group of nearly 50 living Native artists practicing across the United States.(National Gallery of Art)Visit the online exhibition » www.nativeamericanheritagemonth.gov . This commemorative month aims to provide a platform for Native people in the United States of America to share their culture, traditions, music, crafts, dance, and ways and concepts of life. This gives Native people the opportunity to express to their community, both city, county and state officials their concerns and solutions for building bridges of understanding and friendship in their local area. Federal Agencies are encouraged to provide educational programs for their employees regarding Native American history, rights, culture and contemporary issues, to better assist them in their jobs and for overall awareness. ? (Political Controversy) On October 31, 2019, President Donald Trump also proclaimed November 2019 as National American History and Founders Month[14] to celebrate the first European founders and colonizers of America. In a similar fashion to when, on October 13, 2019, President Donald Trump issued a formal proclamation acknowledging Columbus Day as being the Federal National holiday and not Indigenous Peoples' Day,[15] some journalists suggested National American History and Founders Month is an attempt to subvert attention from National Native American Heritage Month en.m.wikipedia.org/… Native American Netroots on DK Community Group follow: www.dailykos.com/... Admins:Meteor Blades, Aji, Neeta Lind, GreyHawk Native American Heritage Month: A Proud Heritage Native American Heritage Month: A Proud Heritage BY TOM COLE  NOVEMBER 06, 2023 Guest Opinion. Each year during the month of November, I am proud that our nation takes this time to reflect on the unique heritage, rich history and special contributions of Native Americans. As a proud member of the Chickasaw Nation of Oklahoma, I always take this special time to reflect on my tribal heritage and the importance of tribes and their members in the United States. And as the longest serving Native American in the U.S. House of Representatives, the privilege and honor it is to represent the interests of tribes in Congress is certainly not lost on me. Across the United States, there are more than 570 federally-recognized tribes – including 39 sovereign tribes in Oklahoma and four headquartered in the Fourth District and another half a dozen with tribal territory and jurisdiction within its boundaries. Native American issues always encourage bipartisan cooperation and attention. As the Republican Co-Chair of the bipartisan Congressional Native American Caucus, I am proud to promote policies that affirm and protect tribal sovereignty and the right to self-governance and preserve the promises made by the federal government in treaty agreements. Remember them MMIW — Native Womens Wilderness MURDERED & MISSING INDIGENOUS WOMEN. Our women, girls, and two-spirts are being taken from us in an alarming way. As of 2016, the National Crime ... This month and always, it is important Americans celebrate Native American Heritage Month and remember the role tribes and tribal leaders have played in American history. Tribes have greatly influenced the land in which we live, even before the United States came to be, and it is our obligation to uphold the federal trust responsibility to protect their interests and sovereignty. Rep. Tom Cole (Chickasaw), who represents Oklahoma’s 4th congressional district, is the longest serving Native American in history to serve the U.S. House of Representatives. He currently serves as the chairman of the House Rules Committee.nativenewsonline.net/… Dk images library . Native News Online https://nativenewsonline.net › here Here's Whats Going On In Indian Country: Native American Heritage  — November is celebrated as “Native American Heritage Month.” At Native News Online, we amplify Native voices and share our.... . Native American Netroots http://nativeamericannetroots.net Native American Netroots Muskogean was the most important language family of the Native American Southeastern Culture Area. In her introduction to Florida Place.... ? ? PIERRE, SD - OCTOBER 13: Chris Firethunder (C), a member of the Oglala Lakota Native American tribe, participates in a protest against the proposed Keystone XL pipeline on October 13, 2014 in Pierre, South Dakota. Numerous Native American tribes, ranchers, politicians and people against the pipeline came together to hold a rally on the steps of the state's capital building. (Photo by Andrew Burton/Getty Images) Indigenous Americans: Spirituality and Ecos www.amacad.org/... Each nation and community has its own unique traditions. Still, several characteristics stand out. First, it is common to envision the creative process of the universe as a form of thought or mental process. Second, it is common to have a source of creation that is plural, either because several entities participate in creation or because the process as it unfolds includes many sacred actors stemming from a First Principle (Father/Mother or Grandfather/Grandmother). Third, the agents of creation are seldom pictured as human, but are depicted instead as “wakan” (holy), or animal-like (coyote, raven, great white hare, etc.), or as forces of nature (such as wind/breath). The Lakota medicine man Lame Deer says that the Great Spirit “is not like a human being. . . . He is a power. That power could be in a cup of coffee. The Great Spirit is no old man with a beard.”1 The concept perhaps resembles the elohim of the Jewish Genesis, the plural form of eloi, usually mistranslated as “God,” as though it were singular. Perhaps the most important aspect of indigenous cosmic visions is the conception of creation as a living process, resulting in a living universe in which a kinship exists between all things. Thus the Creators are our family, our Grandparents or Parents, and all of their creations are children who, of necessity, are also our relations. An ancient Ashiwi (Zuñi) prayer-song states: That our earth mother may wrap herself In a four-fold robe of white meal [snow]; . . . When our earth mother is replete with living waters, When spring comes, The source of our flesh, All the different kinds of corn We shall lay to rest in the ground with the earth mother’s living waters, They will be made into new beings, Coming out standing into the daylight of their Sun father, to all sides They will stretch out their hands. . . .thus the Mother Earth is a living being, as are the waters and the Sun. Why Thanksgiving Is Also a National Day of Mourning. It's important to know that for many Native Americans, Thanksgiving is a day of mourning and protest since it commemorates the arrival of settlers in North America and the centuries of oppression and genocide that followed.Nov 6, 2023 The History of Thanksgiving from the Native American Perspective  ? ?

[Author: Angmar] [Category: NativeAmericanHeritageDay] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: Some Northwest Coast Indian artifacts (museum exhibit)

 

at 11/28/24 8:15am

The Willapa Seaport Museum in Raymont, Washington has a display case filled with unlabeled Northwest Coast American Indian artifacts. Note: These photographs were taken on October 11, 2024. More Northwest Coast museum exhibits Indians 101: Carved screen with Haida stories (museum exhibition) Indians 101: Northwest Coast orcas and people (museum exhibits) Indians 101: Killer Whale Potlatch Feast Bowl (museum exhibit) Indians 101: A collection of Northwest Coast and Alaska artifacts (museum exhibit) Indians 101: Oregon's Clatsop Indians (museum exhibit) Indians 101: Coastal canoes (museum exhibit) Indians 101: The Tulalip Longhouse (Photo Diary) Indians 101: The Northwest Coast plank longhouse (museum diary)

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Indians101, Museums, NativeAmericanNetroots, Photography, Washington, WillapaSeaportMuseum] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: North and South Dakota Indians in 1889

 

at 11/26/24 8:15am

When the United States reorganized its government by adopting a constitution in 1787, American Indian tribes were recognized as sovereign nations, meaning that dealings with the tribes was to be done by the federal government rather than the various state governments. As territories-- particularly those in the west--became states, Indian tribes retained their sovereignty and were supposed to be immune from state laws. In 1889, Congress passed a federal Enabling Act which required North and South Dakota to hold constitutional conventions as a prerequisite of statehood. The federal act declared:  “That the people inhabiting said proposed states do agree and declare that they forever disclaim all right and title to all lands owned or held by any Indian or Indian tribes; and that until the title thereto shall have been extinguished by the United States, the same shall be and remain subject to the disposition of the United States and said Indian lands shall remain under the absolute jurisdiction and control of the congress of the United States.” At this time, much of the land in this territory was owned, occupied, and used by several different American Indian nations. Since Indians were not citizens, nor could they become citizens, there was little concern for Indian rights in the formation of the new states. There was, however, concern for the land and for obtaining title to the land so that it could be opened for homesteading. It was commonly felt by politicians and others that the Indians had too much land and that they were incapable of “developing” it so that it would benefit the economy of the new states. Briefly described below are some of the American Indian events of 1889 involving North and South Dakota. Meeting with the Sioux In South Dakota, a government commission headed by General George Crook met with the Sioux. The commission provided the Sioux with lavish feasts in order to obtain the needed signatures for the Sioux to cede much of their land. At one council, Sioux leader Red Cloud told the people that he was not feeling well and had not come to participate but to simply listen. In his entry on Red Cloud in the Encyclopedia of North American Indians, James Olson reports: “American Horse took over for the Sioux, and his performance was one of the greatest oratorical efforts in the history of Indian negotiations.” He spoke until dark, and then went on in the same fashion for two more days. Great Sioux Reservation To obtain more land for homesteaders and to reduce the amount of land controlled by the Sioux, the American government broke the Great Sioux Reservation into six smaller reservations:  Cheyenne River, Crow Creek, Lower Brulé, Pine Ridge, Rosebud, and Standing Rock. Eleven million acres of land not included in these reservations was “returned” to the federal government. These “surplus” lands were then opened to American settlers. Washington trip In South Dakota, the Indian agent for the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation selected Gall, Grass, Mad Bear, Big Head, and Two Bears as a delegation to travel to Washington, D.C. in order to meet with the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to discuss concessions on the new Sioux bill. The Secretary of the Interior agreed to employing more Indians on the new Sioux reservations, to lifting the ban on “innocent” dances, and to building new grist mills. Off reservation travel Reservations were often run like concentration camps where the Indian inmates were seen as prisoners who were not supposed to leave the reservation. Religion professor Philip Jenkins, in his book Dream Catchers: How Mainstream American Discovered Native Spirituality, writes: “Once Indians were confined to reservations, U.S. officials did not want their Native charges to travel to traditional sacred places, since such wandering disrupted the hard-won social and political order.” Boarding school superintendent Edwin Chalcraft, in his book Assimilation’s Agent: My Life as a Superintendent in the Indian Boarding School System, reports that “…Government Regulations provided that Indians shall not leave their reservations without a written pass from the officer in charge.”  In South Dakota, Sioux warrior Young Man Afraid of His Horses wrote to General George Crook asking permission to visit some of his relatives on the Crow reservation in Montana. His request was not granted. Historian Ken Egan, in his book Montana 1889, writes: “Reservation officials both on the ground and in Washington D.C., fear the movement of Indians from reservation to reservation, suspicious of motive and impact.” Almost a War In North Dakota, the territorial militia was called out to help collect delinquent taxes from the Chippewas and Metis of the Turtle Mountain Reservation. At the last minute, the militia was recalled, unaware that a large force of Chippewa and Metis warriors were waiting in ambush for them. In his University of New Mexico Ph.D. Dissertation, The Turtle Mountain Plains-Chippewas and Metis, 1787-1935, Gregory Camp writes: “There is little doubt that an ambush of frightening proportions would have resulted.” Catholic Mission In North Dakota, a Catholic Mission was established at Elbowoods on the Fort Berthold Reservation. More 19th Century Histories Indians 101: American Indians and Montana statehood in 1889 Indians 101: American Indians and the creation of Washington Territory in 1853 Indians 101: American Indians and Montana statehood in 1889 Indians 201: The 1836 American Indian Liberation Army Indians 101: American Indians and the 1893 World Columbian Exposition Indians 201: The 1827 Winnebago Uprising Indians 101: The 1855 Treaty Council at Wasco, Oregon Indians 101: The California treaties of 1851-1852

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, History, Indians101, NativeAmericanNetroots, NorthDakota, StandingRockSiouxReservation, Metis, SiouxIndians, ChippewaIndians, FortBertholdReservation, SouthDakota, GreatSiouxReservation, TurtleMountainReservation] [Link to media]

— Squamish Indian Dancers

 

at 11/23/24 2:11pm

Welcome to the Street Prophets Coffee Hour cleverly hidden at the intersection of religion, art, science, food, and politics. This is an open thread where we can share our thoughts and comments about the day. Let’s start today by looking at some First Nations dancers. For more than 10,000 years, the Squamish people have lived in what is now the Lower Mainland of British Columbia. Recently, the Spakwus Slolem (“Eagle Song Dancers”) presented songs, dances, and stories at the Aboriginal Cultural Festival in Victoria, British Columbia. According to the group’s website: “We are a Coastal people, people of the cedar longhouses, of the great sea-going canoes, the racing war canoes, People of the Salmon. Our colourful history speaks of things of legend, of deeds of certain members of the Smylaith Tribe (Sasquatch), legends of the Animal Kingdom(i.e., The Raven, Seagull and Sun), which brings out Teachings of our Squamish People, the History of Takaya, the Wolf Clan, one of our Squamish Family's History.” Belong are some photographs of this event. Caution: these are not “powwow” dances nor do the dancers look like the stereotypical Plains Indians. Traditionally, visitors to the village would be greeted with dances, to welcome them and to bring them into harmony with the village. The dances shown here were public performances, not sacred dances, and photography was allowed.  Open Thread  This is an open thread—all topics are welcome in the comments.

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, BritishColumbia, Canada, CoffeeHour, Community, OpenThread, Photography, StreetProphets, SquamishIndians] [Link to media]

— US War on Native America, 1775-1924

 

at 11/21/24 9:56am

November is Native American Heritage Month, and next week is the 403rd anniversary of the first Thanksgiving feast of the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag, when, as earlier in Jamestown, Native Americans helped starving English colonists. Contrary to the gauzy fabricated myth that natives peacefully welcomed Christian settlers and happily ceded their lands, tribes were decimated by disease and were massacred in both the Pequot War and King Philip’s War. Thanksgiving was first declared a national holiday by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, at a time when the US government was also at war with the Apache, Commanche, Navajo, Sioux, Ute and Yavapai, among other tribes. In the interests of truth, this post will focus on the NPS sites of the US War on Native America from the Revolution to 1924. Our Democracy owes a debt to the Iroquois Confederacy formed 882 years ago, the oldest living participatory democracy. Ben Franklin was a student of Hiawatha’s Law of Peace which united 5 (later 6) tribes on issues affecting them all, while allowing them each to manage their own tribal issues separately. Thus, 13 colonies united to gain independence, becoming the United States. In 1794, George Washington signed the Treaty of Canandaigua recognizing our allies the Oneida, who fought with the Patriots at Fort Stanwix and Saratoga. The other tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, many having fought for the British, had lost most of their lands in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. For Native Americans, war with the US continued non-stop, moving northwest near Fallen Timbers and southeast near Chickamauga and Chattanooga. Despite winning the most successful native battle against the US army at the Wabash River, the pattern of natives losing their land regardless of whether they fought or which side they joined continued. The River Raisin set the stage for the War of 1812 and made the issue of claiming native land a mainstay of presidential campaigns. General Jackson leveraged his victory at Horseshoe Bend to become a popular national figure, and as President, he defied the Supreme Court to remove many tribes from the southeast to Oklahoma on the Trail of Tears. As the country expanded out west, following the scouting trip of Lewis & Clark, the US military used a network of forts in their continuing war against natives along the Old Spanish Trails west of the Mississippi: Arkansas Post, Fort Smith, Fort Scott, Fort Larned, Fort Laramie, Fort Davis, Fort Union, and Fort Bowie. Each was involved in supporting hundreds of one-sided battles against Native Americans, often involving Buffalo Soldiers in remote places like Chiricahua. While there were a few forts, like Fort Vancouver and Fort Union Trading Post, that were peaceful, there were also other forts like Bent’s Old Fort, Hubbell Trading Post and at Pipe Spring that were involved in the destruction of native tribes, often by destroying their food supplies. And after being cleared of natives, the Homestead Act gave their land to settlers for free. And there were massacres. Not the rare US military defeat like at Little Bighorn. Not the few sensationalized or many fictional stories of natives killing relatively small numbers of white settlers, like at Whitman Mission. But the illegal massacres of hundreds of peaceful villagers by US Army regulars and volunteers at Big Hole above, Sand Creek, and Washita Battlefield, among many others not yet memorialized by the NPS. Even our national monument to great presidents at Mount Rushmore is not far from the massacre site at Wounded Knee. The US War on Native America is not usually considered as one continuous war, but rather as over 60 different military conflicts, often overlapping, between 1775 and 1924, when the last Apache raid was conducted in the US and when Native Americans finally got the right to vote 100 years ago. However, the US was at war with various Native American tribes in the years from 1775 to 1795, from 1811 to 1815, 1817-1818, in 1823, 1827, 1832 and from 1835 to 1924, or for 121 years of active fighting, plus 29 years of intervening “peaceful” forced removal by the US and state governments, even of tribes which had assimilated. Taken as a whole—including forcing dishonest treaties, abrogating treaties, suspending promised annuities, terminating trading relations, cheating tribes in unfair land deals, preventing private land deals with natives, relocating natives when gold was discovered on their land, revoking Indian land titles, seizing tribal land, annulling tribal constitutions, challenging their rights in court, dismissing their victories in court, dividing tribes, destroying crops, killing livestock, slaughtering bison, subsidizing exodus, rounding up tribal members into camps, locking them in forts, and forced marching them 1,000 miles over 5 months under US military guard—, the US government policy of removing Native Americans by force was a single policy, confirmed by multiple US presidents, passed into laws by Congress, and executed by the US military with deadly force against one group, known collectively as “Indians”—as in the “Indian Removal Act” of 1830—. So, rather than being dismissed as dozens of piecemeal conflicts, the US military actions against all the tribes should be considered as a single 150 year long, genocidal war. It is horrifying to me that we do not recognize our nation’s longest war, even in the 100th anniversary since its end. We have largely forgotten the roughly 100 tribes that are now extinct, as well as the Pontiac War which used smallpox blankets, the Potawatomi Trail of Death, the Long Walk of the Navajo, the Yavapai Exodus, and others. And we in the United States—founded under a Native American democratic organizing principle and living on native land—do not admit that the long, costly war, devastating relocations and cultural destruction, was repeatedly approved by racist American voters. “The wounded, the sick, newborn babies, and the old men on the point of death… I saw them embark to cross the great river and the sight will never fade from my memory. Neither sob nor complaint rose from that silent assembly. Their afflictions were of long standing, and they felt them to be irremediable.” —Alexis de Tocqueville, on witnessing the Trail of Tears in Memphis

[Author: CorpFlunky] [Category: Genocide, History, NativeAmericans, Racism, War, ZCT.Life] [Link to media]

— Missing And Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Crow artist Linda Pease (museum exhibition)

 

at 11/21/24 8:15am

In the United States, American Indians, both on the reservations and in urban areas, have higher rates of assault, rape, abduction, and murder. Indian women in particular are more likely to go missing (four times that national average) and to be murdered (ten times the national average) than any other group. The Missoula Art Museum (MAM) in Missoula, Montana hosted a special exhibition, We Stand With You: Contemporary Artists Honor The Families Of The Missing And Murdered Indigenous Relative Crisis, guest curated by Rachel Allen (Nimiipuu [Nez Perce]). According to MAM: “MAM is situated on the traditional, ancestral territories of the Séliš and Ql̓ispé peoples. Exhibitions like this are one of the ways that the museum honors and recognizes this relationship.” One of the works in the special exhibition was Remembered Well by Crow artist Linda Pease. It is made from acrylic paint, antique vintage paper on canvas. Pease writes: “Lost to our world are the Indigenous victims of commonly unsolved crime. Law enforcement seems not to investigate these murders. They dwell in a special place as we honor their memory in beauty.” According to MAM: “Her art captures moments in spiritual time that entwine Crow Indian Design, and figures in story, campsites, horses, dance and tipis. Her work is highlighted by authentic Crow colors and design elements with creative textures in each composition.”   Note: these photographs were taken on August 22, 2024. More American Indian art Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Salish Artist Aspen Decker (museum exhibition) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Cree/Blackfeet artist Valentina LaPier (museum exhibition) Indians 101: Nez Perce Indian Art (Photo Diary) Indians 101: Three Plateau Women Artists (Photo Diary) Indians 101: Contemporary Native art in the Portland Art Museum (museum exhibition) Indians 101: The art of Oscar Howe, 1945-1956 (museum exhibition) Indians 101: Glass Art by Northwest Native Carvers and Weavers (Art Diary) Indians 101: Exploring Glass Art by Native Artists (Art Diary)

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Art, Indians101, Montana, Museums, NativeAmericanNetroots, Photography, CrowIndians, MissoulaArtMuseum, MissingAndMurderedIndigenousRelatives, LindaPease] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: Mandan farming, fishing, and hunting

 

at 11/19/24 8:46am

While the most common stereotype of Plains Indians brings forth an image of horse-mounted buffalo-hunting nomads living in tipis, many of the Plains Indian nations were farmers who lived in permanent villages and raised crops of corn (maize), beans, and squash. The Mandans were among the earliest farming nations on the Northern Plains. Their villages were along the Missouri River in the Dakotas. Archaeologists feel that the Mandan first moved to the banks of the Missouri River in what is now South Dakota from northwestern Iowa or southwestern Minnesota. After five centuries in this area, there was a climatic change (the Pacific I climate episode) which drove them north into present-day North Dakota. The photographer and ethnographer Edward Curtis, in Prayer to the Great Mystery: The Uncollected Writings and Photography of Edward S. Curtis, reports: “Mandan tradition tells of a gradual migration up the Missouri ‘from the place where the river flows into the great water’.” Edward Curtis, in reviewing Mandan oral tradition, concludes: “One can hardly doubt, therefore, that the Mandan dwelt originally in the warm Gulf region near the mouth of the Mississippi.” For two centuries their villages lay north of the Grand River. In their 1917 book Corn Among the Indians of the Upper Missouri, George Will and George Hyde wrote:   “The Mandans were evidently the first Siouan tribe to reach the Upper Missouri.” Farming The Mandans raised corn (maize), beans, sunflowers, tobacco, pumpkins, and squash. They produced not only enough agricultural products for their own use, but also a substantial surplus which was traded to other tribes, and later to the Europeans and Americans. In her book Women of the Earth Lodges: Tribal Life on the Plains, anthropologist Virginia Bergman Peters writes: “The combination of a satisfactory agricultural base and a surplus of corn vital to their extensive trade brought wealth and political power to the upper Missouri River villages.” In preparing the fields for planting, the Mandans used rakes and digging sticks. Some of the rakes were made from deer antler and some were made from long willow shoots. In cultivating the fields, the Mandan used hoes that were often made from the shoulder-blade of the buffalo or elk attached to a long wooden handle. The Mandans planted between nine and eleven different varieties of corn. The Mandan farmers also observed some basic plant genetics and separated the fields with the different varieties of corn. Regarding the corn grown by the Mandans and other Missouri River tribes, George Will and George Hyde report: “It is extremely hardy, not only adapting itself to varying amounts of moisture, and producing some crop under drought conditions, but resistant also to the unseasonable frosts which are apt to occur in the home region.” One of the main varieties of corn was flint corn, which was well-adapted to the semi-arid Northern Plains climate. This corn took about 60 days to mature and, because of its short stalk, was able to withstand winds fairly well. George Will and George Hyde report: “Flint corn is usually eight rowed, occasionally ten or twelve rowed; this species is high in protein and the grain is very hard and heavy.” The Mandans also grew flour corn which is softer and lighter. It is largely composed of starch and is deficient in protein. The advantage of this species of corn, however, was that it could be easily crushed, or ground and it was much softer than the flint corn when eaten parched. Squash was planted in late May or early June. To prepare the seeds for planting, they were first wetted, then placed on matted red-grass leaves and mixed with broad-leaved sage. Buffalo skin was then folded over the squash bundle, then hung in the lodge to dry for two days. During this time the seeds would begin to sprout. The sprouted seeds were then planted in hills about four feet apart. Immediately after planting the squash, the beans were planted in hills about two feet apart between the rows of corn. Five different varieties of beans were planted. Mandan crops were stored for winter in cache pits. These pits were shaped like a jug with a narrow neck at the top. The storage pits would be from 6 to 8 feet deep. The cache would hold 20 to 30 bushels. They were lined with grass or woven plants to prevent spoilage from moisture. In preparing the corn for storage, the ears would be braided into strands. According to George Will and George Hyde: “There was a standard size for these braids, the length being from knee down around the foot and up to the knee again.” Once braided, the corn would be hung on the frame of the drying scaffold. One of the popular ways of preparing the corn for eating was making corn balls. In one version of the corn balls, pounded sugar corn was mixed with grease. Another kind of corn ball was made using pounded corn, pounded sunflower seed, and boiled beans. It is reported that this tasted like peanut butter. Hunting and Fishing While the Mandans were a farming people, they supplemented their agricultural diet with buffalo meat. Along the Missouri River in North Dakota, the farming tribes would “fish” for buffalo. In the fall, buffalo attempting to cross the thin ice on the river would fall through and drown. Their bodies were carried downstream and collected by the village tribes along the river. The meat from these animals was often well-aged—some Europeans would call it “high”—but the Indians enjoyed dining on buffalo that had been dead for months. Some nineteenth-century traders reported that the Indians were eating “fished” buffalo that were so rotten the flesh had to be scooped with a spoon. The Mandans also built corrals next to precipitous stream banks which were used to trap pronghorn antelope. The animals would be driven into the corral with men, women, and children jumping up and preventing the pronghorns from turning back. Once captured in the corral, the animals could be easily clubbed to death. Fish were another source of protein. The Mandans used pens made of willows as fish traps. These traps were placed in the shallow waters near the edge of the stream and baited with rotten meat. During the summer months they would catch large quantities of catfish. Several species of catfish were taken: blue (Ictalurus furcatus) which weighed up to 100 pounds; flathead (Pylodictus olivaris) which was up to five feet long and could weigh up to 100 pounds; channel (Ictalurus punctatus) which seldom weighed more than 25 pounds; and the black bullhead (Ictalurus melas) which weighed two pounds or less. More Indians 101 Indians 101: A very short overview of Mandan religion Indians 101: Pawnee farming Indians 101: Acoma Farming Indians 101: Indian Farming in Massachusetts Indians 101: Iroquois Farming Indians 101: Southeastern Agriculture Indians 101: Plateau Indian food gathering (museum exhibit) Indians 101: Indian fishing in Western Washington

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Indians101, NativeAmericanNetroots, MandanIndians] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: American Indian trade goods (museum exhibit)

 

at 11/14/24 8:15am

Astoria, Oregon, situated at the mouth of the Columbia River within a few miles of the Pacific Ocean, began as a trading post known as Fort Astoria, named after John Jacob Astor (1763-1848), the New York financier who sent fur traders into the area. The Astorians (the Pacific Fur Company) had the trading post for only a couple years before it was sold to the Nor’westers (the North West Company) and when the Nor’westers merged with the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC), it became a HBC trading post. The Heritage Museum in Astoria has an exhibit of Indian trade goods. Metal pots were common trade items. According to the Museum: “Items for the home were frequently traded, not only because they were inexpensive and readily available, but because using such items, it would thought, helped ‘civilize’ the Native Americans.” Traps, such as those shown above, were usually made by blacksmiths at the trading posts. Glass beads, usually made in Italy, were popular trade items.   Clay tobacco pipes, commonly known as Church Warden pipes, were popular in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. As the mouthpiece began worn, it could be broken off, shortening the pipe but allowing its continued use. Shown above is a bundle of furs which have been acquired by the Hudson’s Bay Company. More Indians 101 Indians 101: Northern Plains Indian Clothing (Photo Diary) Indians 101: Plains Indian Pipes in the Maryhill Museum (Photo Diary) Indians 101: A collection of Northwest Coast and Alaska artifacts (museum exhibit) Indians 101: Kalispel sturgeon-nose canoes (museum tour) Indians 101: Plains Indian pictorial art (museum tour) Indians 101: Everyday life among Washington Indians (museum diary) Indians 101: Sanpoil and Wanapan Indians (museum exhibit) Indians 101: Wasco homelife (museum exhibit)

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Indians101, Museums, NativeAmericanNetroots, Oregon, Photography, HudsonsBayCompany, HeritageMuseum, NorthWestCompany, PacificFurCompany] [Link to media]

— Historic Moment for FANA Member Tribe, Cape Fear Band of Skarure Woccon Indians of North Carolina

 

at 11/13/24 11:28am

I have gotten to know Principal Chief Moore, who is also addressed as Principal Chief Eagle Elk, since the early days of FANA.  I always look forward to working with him. Principal Chief Eagle Elk sent me the news of the historical event and I am posting as it was written. “The Cape Fear Band of Skarure Woccon Indians received formal recognition on Indigenous Peoples Day with Proclamations presented by Sunny Point Military Base and officials from the Belville/Leland area, honored them as the Cape Fear region's original inhabitants. At the event, Chief Lovell Pierce Moore, also known as Eagle Elk, addressed the audience with a powerful speech about the Skarure Woccon’s enduring presence and contributions to the community. Chief Moore shared how, for generations, Skarure Woccon families have lived, worked, and built lives alongside their non-Indigenous neighbors, emphasizing that they attend the same schools, shop at the same stores, and engage in shared concerns like clean water initiatives and local economic development. His message underscored the visible and invisible aspects of Indigenous identity, explaining that First Nations people may not always fit stereotypical appearances. Chief Moore called for a respectful curiosity and recognition of Indigenous neighbors, as people might unknowingly share spaces with First Nations individuals who, like the Skarure Woccon, have a deep connection to the land and a strong commitment to the local community. This moment of acknowledgment through the Proclamations served not only to celebrate Indigenous history but also to build greater awareness and understanding of the Skarure Woccon’s ongoing role in the Cape Fear area.”

[Author: LauraZ] [Category: CapeFear, Indigenous, NativeAmerican, NorthCarolina, SandHill, fana, TheSandHillBandofLenapeandCherokeeindians, thefederationofaboriginalindansoftheamericas] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: The Last Great Indian Council (1909)

 

at 11/12/24 8:15am

During the nineteenth century it was assumed by many policy makers, academics, and others that American Indians were a vanishing race. American policies toward the end of the nineteenth century--such as the Allotment Act, boarding schools, and outlawing Indian religions--were intended to eradicate Indian cultures. In the early twentieth century, Indians were often looked on nostalgically as the remnants of the past. Some people tried to record this past through photography, movies, and popular books. In 1909, several chiefs, scouts, and warriors gathered in Montana’s Little Big Horn Valley for an event which promoters called the Last Great Indian Council. The council was put together with the help of the Indian Office (now called the Bureau of Indian Affairs). Its purpose was to make a permanent and comprehensive record of an old-time Indian council. The Last Great Indian Council had its origins in the Wanamaker expeditions. The concept of these expeditions came from Joseph Dixon (1856-1926), the Education Director of Wanamaker’s Department Store in Philadelphia. Rodman Wanamaker agreed to sponsor the expeditions: (1) 1908 to Crow Agency, Montana; (2) 1909 to Crow Agency to film The Last Great Indian Council and to film a reenactment of the Battle of the Little Bighorn; and (3) the 1913 Expedition for Citizenship. The 1909 council and its participants were described in the 1913 book The Vanishing Race: The Last Great Indian Council written by Joseph Dixon. In the book, Dixon perpetuates the stereotypes of “Vanishing Race” and “The Noble Red Man.” He offers comparisons with the Romans, a vanished civilization. Briefly described below are the participants in The Last Great Indian Council. Apache Chief Apache John Joseph Dixon writes: “A keen and piercing eye, a sadly kind face, a tall and erect figure, Apache John bears his sixty years of life with broad and unbending shoulders.” Blackfoot Chief Mountain Chief (1848-1942) In his book Who Was Who in Native American History: Indians and Non-Indians From Early Contacts Through 1900, Carl Waldman writes: “As a young man, he was active in warfare against neighboring tribes, especially against the Crows and Gros Ventres in 1867; and against the Kootenais the following year.” He was wounded in the leg during a battle with the Crows and afterwards walked with a limp. He signed the 1886 treaty ceding Blackfoot lands east of the Sweet Grass Hills and the 1895 agreement which gave the United States much of the land which would become Glacier National Park. Joseph Dixon described Mountain Chief: “The nobility of his presence, the Roman cast of his face, the keen penetration of his eye, the breadth of his shoulders, the dignity with which he wears his sixty-seven years of life, all conspire to make this hereditary chief of the Fast Buffalo Horse band of the Blackfeet preeminent among the Indians and eminent among any class of men.” Cayuse Chief Umapine Joseph Dixon describes Umapine: “A commanding figure, six feet two inches in height, noble and dignified in bearing, quiet and reserved in manner, he creates an atmosphere of intellectuality.” Comanche Chief Timbo (Hairless) Joseph Dixon describes Timbo: “With his stature of more than six feet, he is a commanding figure among any Indians.” Crow Chief Plenty Coups (1848-1942) Plenty Coup was an advocate of peace with the United States. Carl Waldman writes: “Although a noted warrior against the Crows’ traditional enemies, Plenty Coups never made war against the whites.” Joseph Dixon describes Plenty Coups: “He has the bearing and dignity of a royal prince and wears his honours and war dress with all the pride and courtliness of a patrician.” In 1904, Plenty Coups became chief of the Mountain Crows. Crow Chief Bear Ghost Joseph Dixon describes Bear Ghost: “He wears the countenance of a Roman senator; he is tall, graceful, and full of dignity, a forceful and convincing speaker, and a compelling advocate of peace.” Crow Warrior Bull Snake As a scout for the U.S. Army, Bull Snake had been wounded in the Battle of the Rosebud. He said: “I feel that I have suffered because I have followed my Great Father’ orders. I am glad that I fought for the soldiers, for I think it was the right thing to do. Because of my wounded leg I am not able to work; sometimes I nearly starve, and yet I feel that I did the right thing. Will you be kind enough to see that I get my pension?” Crow Warrior White-Man-Runs-Him White-Man-Runs-Him had been scout for the U.S. Cavalry. Joseph Dixon describes White-Man-Runs-Him: “At the age of sixty-seven, his figure, seventy-four inches in height, stands unbent—supple and graceful.” Regarding working for the army, White-Man-Runs-Him says: “Land is a very valuable thing, especially our land. I knew the Cheyennes and Sioux wanted to take it by conquest, so I stayed with the soldiers to help hold it.” Crow Warrior Hairy Moccasin Hairy Moccasin had been scout for the U.S. Cavalry. Hairy Moccasin, while working for Lt. Col. Custer, was the first scout to spot the Sioux camp where the 7th Cavalry would meet its destiny. White-Man-Runs-Him says of Hairy Moccasin: “I cannot say anything better about Hairy Moccasin that to say that he executed faithfully the orders of General Custer” Crow Warrior Curly (ca. 1859-1923) Curly had been a scout for the U.S. Cavalry. Joseph Dixon writes: “He has the bearing, grace, and dignity of an orator. His name will also go down in history as one of the leading scouts who trailed for General Custer the Indian camp, and as the last of his scouts on the fated field where Custer and his command were slain.” Crow Warrior Goes-Ahead Goes-Ahead had been a scout for the U.S. Cavalry. Joseph Dixon writes: “Goes-Ahead carries about a tall, attenuated, and weakened frame. He is standing on the verge of yonder land. He is stricken with a fatal disease.” Gros Ventre (Atsina) Chief Red Whip According to Joseph Dixon: “Chief Red Whip is considered by his tribe as one of the greatest of the old hunters and warriors.” Gros Ventre (Atsina) Chief Running Fisher Joseph Dixon writes: “Chief Running Fisher has measured threescore years of life, and for forty years of that time he had averaged a battle for every other year.” Among the tribes he has battled are the Blackfoot, Nez Perce, Crow, and Shoshone. He says: “I have twenty shots in my body received in battle.” Kiowa Chief Running Bird Joseph Dixon describes Running Bird: “His massive frame, lion-like head, and dignified bearing show few of the marks of the more than threescore years written upon his life.” Oglala Sioux Chief Red Cloud The son of Chief Red Cloud (1822-1909), the fifty-four-year-old younger Red Cloud attended the council in his father’s place. Joseph Dixon writes: “He is tall and straight and lithe, and possesses a splendid military bearing.” Northern Cheyenne Head Chief Two Moons (1847-1917) During the 1876-1877 War for the Black Hills, Two Moons had fought Sioux leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. After surrendering to the Army in 1877, Two Moons became an Army scout and was with the Army in the Nez Perce War. Joseph Dixon writes: “Two Moons is now nearly blind; he carries his coup stick, covered with a wolf-skin, both as a guide for his footsteps and a badge of honour.” Southern Cheyenne Head Chief Brave Bear Joseph Dixon writes of Brave Bear: “He is tactful and courteous, and his smile resembles the sunlight breaking a path across a darkened sheet of water; it is the most winsome that I have seen for years on the face of any man.” Southern Yankton Sioux Chief White Horse With regard to boarding schools, White Horse says: “I sent my children to a nearby school until they were old enough and then I was one of the first to send my children to Hampton, Virginia, to school. They all came home and died of consumption.” Teton Sioux Chief Runs-the-Enemy Joseph Dixon writes: “Imagine a Roman warrior with clear-cut visage and flashing eyes, his face written all over with battle lines, his voice running the entire gamut from rage to mirth, and you have a mental picture of Chief Runs-the-Enemy, a tall, wiry Teton Sioux whose more than sixty-four years of life have crossed many a battlefield and won many a triumph.” With regard to reservation life, Runs-the-Enemy says: “They told me to send my children to school, which I did. I sent all my children to school, and they came home and all of them died. They told me if I sent the children to school and educated them, they would be all right. Instead of that I sent them to school and they all came home with consumption and died, seven in number.” Umatilla Chief Tin-Tin-Meet-Sa Joseph Dixon writes: “Old Tin-Tin-Meet-Sa, bent and tottering with his more than eighty years of life, his noble old face still wearing great dignity, his almost sightless eyes looking for the last flicker of life’s sunset, presented a pathetic picture as he faced the firelight and told of his loneliness as he passed the deserted buffalo trails.”   Tin-Tin-Meet-Sa tells the council: “I consider the greatest event in my life the assistance I rendered in the capture and killing of Chief Eagan, war chief of the Piutes, during the Bannock or Sheep-Eater war.” Yankton Sioux Chief Pretty Voice Eagle Joseph Dixon writes of Pretty Voice Eagle: “He became stormy and vociferous as he told his story of broken treaties, how the Indian had been wronged by the white man, and how his life had been scarred by the storms of life.” Concerning the buffalo, Pretty Voice Eagle says: “We were accustomed to eating buffalo meat and other wild game; we loved that, and we were all full of health as long as we had it.” More American Indian stories Indians 101: American Indians and the 1893 World Columbian Exposition Indians 101: The 1915 Ute Indian War Indians 201: The 1887 Crow uprising Indians 101: Roman Nose, Cheyenne Warrior Indians 201: A very short overview of Montana's Gros Ventre Indians Indians 201: Cheyenne migrations Indians 101: the 1923 Posey's War in Utah Indians 101: The 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, History, Indians101, Montana, NativeAmericanNetroots, BlackfootIndians, CrowIndians, ApacheIndians, SiouxIndians, CheyenneIndians, KiowaIndians, ComancheIndians, CayuseIndians, GrosVentreIndians, UmatillaIndians] [Link to media]

— Missing And Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Blackfeet artist Valentina LaPier (museum exhibition)

 

at 11/7/24 8:15am

In the United States, American Indians, both on the reservations and in urban areas, have higher rates of assault, rape, abduction, and murder. Indian women in particular are more likely to go missing (four times that national average) and to be murdered (ten times the national average) than any other group. The Missoula Art Museum (MAM) in Missoula, Montana hosted a special exhibition, We Stand With You: Contemporary Artists Honor The Families Of The Missing And Murdered Indigenous Relative Crisis, guest curated by Rachel Allen (Nimiipuu [Nez Perce]). According to MAM: “MAM is situated on the traditional, ancestral territories of the Séliš and Ql̓ispé peoples. Exhibitions like this are one of the ways that the museum honors and recognizes this relationship.” One of the works in the special exhibition was Red Dress made in 2023 with mixed media by Blackfeet/Cree/Métis artist Valentina LaPier. Note: these photographs were taken on August 22, 2024. More American Indian art Missing and Murdered Indigenous Relatives: Salish Artist Aspen Decker (museum exhibition) Indians 101: The art of Terran Last Gun (museum exhibition) Indians 101: The Sioux Sun Dance (museum exhibition) Indians 101: American Indian modern art by Oscar Howe (museum tour) Indians 101: Caddo artist Raven Halfmoon (museum tour) Indians 101: Glass art by Marcus Amerman (museum tour) Indians 101: Reborn Rez Wrecks (museum tour) Indians 101: Glass Art by Northwest Native Carvers and Weavers (Art Diary)

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Art, Indians101, Montana, Museums, NativeAmericanNetroots, Photography, MissoulaArtMuseum, MissingAndMurderedIndigenousRelativeCrisis, ValentinaLaPier] [Link to media]

— Indians 201: The Algonquian language family

 

at 11/5/24 8:15am

In North America, linguists generally recognize 58 language families and isolates. Understanding language families is one of the keys to understanding the historical relationships between the Indian groups. The Algonquian language family is a large American Indian language which is found in the Eastern Woodlands, the Plains, and California. With regard to the history of the Algonquian languages and their spread across North America, some linguists postulate that the Algonquian homeland is on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, the home to the Algonquian-speaking Blackfoot. In his book The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue, linguist Merritt Ruhlen writes: “The initial division in the family left the Proto-Algonquians in place to become the Blackfoot, while the other group spread eastward, initially differentiating into the Algonquian languages found in the Great Plains. These languages then spread farther eastward, with the occupation of the East Coast representing the final movement in the dispersal.” On the other hand, linguist Ives Goddard, in his chapter on the Algonquian languages of the Plains in the Handbook of North American Indians, writes: “...the linguistic evidence supports the hypothesis that the Plains Algonquian languages moved westward onto the Plains with their speakers, separating from other Algonquian speakers who remained in the woodlands about the Upper Great Lakes.” Some of the divisions within the Algonquian language family are briefly described below. Plains Algonquian The Plains Algonquian sub-family includes Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Gros Ventre (Atsina), Besawunena, Nawathinehena, and Ha’anahawunena. The last five languages are considered to belong to an Arapahoan sub-group which is distinguished by certain innovations not found in other Algonquian languages. Arapaho, Gros Ventre, and Besawunena are similar enough that their speakers could understand each other with a little practice. Among the Plains Algonquian languages, there is a great deal of difference between Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Blackfoot which suggests that these languages have had a separate existence for a very long time. On the Northern Cheyenne Reservation in Montana, a study by media anthropologist E. B. Eiselein found that of the tribal members 42% understand the Cheyenne language well; 42% understand it a little; and 16% don’t understand it at all. Among people over 55 years of age, 69% understand the language well. Among teenagers, on the other hand, only 4% understand the language well and 67% understand it a little.   California Algonquian California Algonquian includes Wiyot and Yurok. While these two languages are found in northwestern California, they are only distantly related to each other. Some linguists refer to this division as Algic. With regard to the California Algonquian languages, it appears that these two languages branched off from Proto-Algonquian in the Blackfoot homeland and the groups migrated to California. The presence of Algonquian-speaking people in California is the result an early migration from Southern Alberta (Canada). The migration may have moved down the Columbia River, then up the Willamette, across the Umpqua and Rogue River areas, and then down the Klamath River. It is estimated that Wiyot arrived in northwestern California about 900 AD and that Yurok arrived in California about 1100 AD. Glottochronology indicates that Wiyot and Yurok diverged from a common parent Algonquian language 5,100 to 6,100 years ago and that the two languages diverged from each other about 2,300 years ago. Central Algonquian The Central Algonquian sub-family includes Miami, Illinois, Shawnee, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Menominee, Potawatomi, Ojibwa, Cree, Montegnais, and Naskapi. At one point in time, some linguists regarded Potawatomi as a dialect of Ojibwa, but presently it is classified as a separate language. In his chapter on the Potawatomi in the Handbook of North American Indians, James Clifton reports: “In sound and structure, it shows many parallels with Southern Ojibwa and Ottawa, although it shares much vocabulary and many phonetic features with Fox, Sauk, and Kickapoo.” Writing about the difficulties facing an Ojibwa-speaker in learning English, historian Donald Smith, in his book Sacred Feathers: The Reverend Peter Jones (Kahkewaquonaby) and the Mississauga Indians, reports: “In Ojibwa, almost four-fifths of all words are verbs, whereas in English nouns, adjectives, and adverbs predominate. The better Ojibwa orators put the verb first in a sentence, before the noun, so in English the Anishinabeg had, in effect, to talk backward, placing the noun first.” With regard to the relationship between Cree and Montagnais-Naskapi, Truman Michelson, in Linguistic Classification of Cree and Montagnais-Naskapi Dialects, reports: “…neither is derived from the other, but both have so much in common that they both must come essentially from a single source within the Algonquian stock.” Eastern Algonquian The Eastern Algonquian sub-family includes Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet, Etchemin,  Potawatomi, Wampanoag, Lenape (Delaware), Abenaki, Micmac, Massachusett, Narragansett, Mohegan, Pequot, Montauk, Quiripi, Unquachog, Mahican, Munsee, Unami, Nanticoke, and Powhatan. Linguistic evidence shows the Eastern Algonquians have a very long history in the northeastern area. Anthropologists William Haviland and Marjory Power, in their book The Original Vermonters: Native Inhabitants Past and Present, report that “...there is nothing in any of the Eastern Algonquian languages to suggest that the region was ever inhabited by speakers of any non-Algonquian language, from whom Algonquian intruders would be expected to have borrowed some words.” While there are some historians who have suggested that the Pequot invaded New England in fairly recent times, the linguistic evidence strongly supports the notion that the Pequot language developed in New England. Pequot is most closely related to its neighboring languages, Massachusett and Narragansett. In 1612, William Strachey, the Secretary of the Jamestown Colony, recorded a large vocabulary of the Virginia Indian language which was spoken by Powhatan and Pocahontas. John Harrington reports: “The Strachey vocabulary is by far the largest ever made of the now long extinct Virginia Indian language.” The Virginia Indian language belongs to the Algonquian language family and appears to have been a dialect of the Delaware (Lenape) language. In The Original Strachey Vocabulary of the Virginia Indian Language, John Harrington reports: “There existed, no doubt, dialects in the Virginia Indian language, but the extant material is entirely inadequate for determining the nature and extent of these.” Glottochronology suggests that Eastern Algonquian separated from the other Algonquian languages about 3,000 years ago.   Writing about the archaeological sequence of the Atlantic coastal region, anthropologist Dean Snow, in a chapter in the Handbook of North American Indians, reports: “The relatively deep split between the Micmac and the other Eastern Algonquians to the southwest suggests that the Micmac prehistoric sequence will show significant independence from other Eastern Algonquian sequences.” With regard to the Eastern Algonquian languages, linguist Ives Goddard, in his chapter on the Eastern Algonquian languages in the Handbook of North American Indians, writes: “Each Eastern Algonquian language shares features with each of its immediate neighbors, and the resulting continuum is of a sort that is likely to have resulted from the spread of linguistic innovations among forms of speech that were already differentiated but still similar enough to make partial bilingualism easy.” In Wampanoag, an Eastern Algonquian language, nouns are either animate or inanimate. In an article in Cultural Survival Quarterly, Ellen Lutz reports: “An animate object is defined by several different characteristics, including moving independently of another object. In Wampanoag, the Sun is inanimate, while the Earth, which moves independently of it, is animate.” More American Indian languages Indians 201: The Michif Language Indians 101: The Hokan Language Family Indians 201: The Iroquoian language family Indians 101: The Uto-Aztecan Language Family Indians 101: The Athabaskan Language Family Indians 101: The Muskogean Language Family Indians 101: The Siouan Language Family Indians 201: Plains Indian Sign Language

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, Language, Linguistics, NativeAmericanNetroots, Indians201, AlgonquianLanguageFamily] [Link to media]

— History 101: Sixteenth-century histories of the Americas

 

at 11/3/24 9:33am

Europeans became aware of the Americas in the late fifteenth century, and during the sixteenth century a number of people wrote histories of the newly discovered lands and their peoples. Some of the writers had never been to the Americas and based their books on documents and on interviews with explorers, soldiers, missionaries, and others who had returned to Europe. There were also some who wrote from personal experience with the new lands. A few of these early histories are briefly described below. One of the earliest, and most influential, books about the Americas is De orbe novo decades (Of the new world) written by Peter Martyr d’Anghera (1457-1526) and published in Spain in 1516. The Spanish King Charles V appointed Martyr, who had never been to the Americas, as the first official chronicler of the New World. Writing in Latin, Martyr grouped his accounts into sets of ten chapters or reports called decades. In her book Sacred Gifts, Profane Pleasures: A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the Atlantic World, Marcy Norton writes: “His prestigious position allowed him unparalleled access to manuscript reports of New World expeditions and personal interviews with returnees. Martyr saw in America a mirror that reflected Europe’s flaws, among them short-sighted materialism, decay, and corruption. The Antilles that rise from his pages is a lost Eden, peopled by noble savages, deprived of the light of Christianity but blessed with pure souls ripe for conversion.” Marcy Norton also reports: “Martyr described Indian culture from the comfort, safety, and security of his position in Madrid, a distant vantage point from which it was easy to relay exotic detail of foreign peoples within a story intended to comment on European shortcomings and excite pride in the new discoveries.” In 1530, a new edition of Peter Martyr d’Anghera’s De orbe novo decades (Of the new world) was published posthumously. The new edition told of the conquest of Mexico. Marcy Norton writes: “Viewing the discoveries through the lens of fifteenth-century Italian humanism, Martyr found Mexico reminiscent of an overdeveloped, sophisticated Rome inhabited by decadent pagans, with cultural achievements that superseded Europe’s though handicapped by its idolatrous ways. Martyr introduced chocolate in the context of the almost incomprehensible luxuries of Moctezuma’s court—flowing gold and ‘1,500 garments of Gossampine cotton.’” (Gossampine cotton is a thin, sheer fabric.) Marcy Norton also writes: “If he didn’t invent the now-familiar noble savage, Martyr contributed greatly to the vision of ‘naked men’ uncorrupted by insatiable greed and desire for vain luxuries, the perfect negative of degenerate, overdressed civilized men with their useless ‘heaps of gold.’” In 1536, the royal chronicler of the Indies, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (1478-1557), published La historia general de las Indias (The general history of the Indies). The work was published at his own expense. Oviedo had participated in the Spanish colonization of the West Indies. In 1514, he had been appointed as the supervisor of gold smelting at Santo Domingo. When he returned to Spain in 1523, he was appointed historian of the West Indies. Marcy Norton writes: “He declared the native population so innately perverse that they would never embrace the Catholic faith. Oviedo asserted that the indigenous inhabitants’ unusual ‘thick’ skulls were proof of their ‘bestial understanding.’” Oviedo also describes many of the native animals of the Indies and introduces his readers to such things as hammocks, barbecues, pineapples, and tobacco. In 1550, King Charles called together a group of leading theologians and scholars in Valladolid to determine the criteria by which a just war could be waged against Native Americans. Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484-1566) presented the idea that Christianity should be spread by kindness and example rather than by the sword. This was not a popular concept, and the Spanish authorities suppressed the detailed defense of the humanity of Native Americans prepared by Las Casas. In 1554, Francisco López de Gómara (1511-1559), one of the greatest enemies of Bartolomé de Las Casas, published his Historia general de las Indias (General History of the Indians.) According to historian Lee Huddleston, in Origins of the American Indians: European Concepts, 1492-1729: “The author despised the Indians and filled his volume with outrageous characterizations of them.” López described Indians as the worst people God ever made and felt that they should be enslaved because they did not deserve liberty. López de Gómara had never been to America. With regard to tobacco, López described Native American religious leaders as “priests of the devil” who “take in the smoke through the noses” which enabled them to “leave their senses and see a thousand visions.” In 1565, Girolamo Benzoni (1519-1570), a Milanese merchant, published his Historia del mundo nuovo (History of the New World) in Venice. The book was based on his 15 years in the Americas and provided descriptions of Spanish cruelty to American Indians. The book also described many aspects of Native culture, including foods, dances, and building methods. The book proved to be popular, going through eleven editions between 1565 and 1727. The book contributed to Spain’s negative reputation in the Americas. In 1565, Nicolas Monardes (1493-1588) published Dos libros, El uno trata de todas las cosas que  traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales que sirven al uso de medicina (translation: Two books, Book one contains those things brought from our West Indies that are useful in medicine). The book was published in three parts: 1565, 1569, and 1574. Marcy Norton writes: “He was the first humanist-trained university doctor to systematically consider materia medica, a dramatic reversal of the hostility humanist-inclined botanists and physicians had shown to New World substances until that point. Going further, Mondardes advanced the claim that the West Indies has usurped the role of the East Indies as the world’s singular source of pharmacopoeia.” Marcy Norton also writes: “The medical profession provided him with a conceptual framework and vocabulary based on classical authors, yet the dominant intellectual currents of his field resisted the incorporation of American species into European apothecaries.” The European medical view at this time focused on four essential properties—hot, cold, wet, dry—which, within the human body, corresponded to the four humors—blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm. Marcy Norton writes: “He considered twenty-four different medicinals in this first edition, including copal, liquidambar, balsam, guaiacum, ‘China root,’ sarsaparilla, chili peppers, Cassia fistula, and mechoacan—to which he gave the most emphasis.” Menardes did not travel to the Americas but relied on informants, including soldiers, merchants, and others, who brought back information and specimens. In 1571, Nicolas Monardes published the third part of his Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales. In this work, he continued his discussion of American medicinal remedies and an extensive study of tobacco. Menardes felt that tobacco had many medical uses, and he outlined 20 curative uses for tobacco, including stomachaches, gas, parasites, children’s breathing problems, rheumatism, swelling, bloating, poisonings, various skin diseases, uterine ailments, and toothaches, His book also included a section on using tobacco to cure animals. Marcy Norton writes: “Monardes did more, however, than describe tobacco’s properties when ingested or applied to the body. He also gave an explanation for why tobacco did what it did.” Within the European framework of the four essential properties, tobacco provided heat. Marcy Norton writes: “He explained that the therapies worked because the heat of tobacco would dissolve the surplus cold humors that caused congestion and discomfort in the head and chest.” Because tobacco is used in Native American pagan ceremonies, many Europeans associate it with the Christian Devil. Marcy Norton writes:  “Lurking just below the surface of Monardes’s discussion of tobacco was the question of whether Europeans who embraced the American herb became the pagan, potentially diabolically inspired, idolaters whom they emulated.” Monardes makes it clear that while tobacco is used in pagan ceremonies, tobacco itself is innocent. Menardes writes: “As the devil is a deceiver, and has knowledge of the properties of herbs, he showed them the virtue of this one, so that with it he could see those imagined things, and the fantasies they represented, and through them he deceived them.” Many Europeans at this time associated tobacco with the Christian Devil. Marcy Norton writes: “In this scheme, tobacco itself did not cause demonic delusions, but rather put its users into a drunken state of altered consciousness that allowed the devil to place ‘fantasies and illusions’ in their minds.”. Marcy Norton also writes: “With this explanation of tobacco’s psychotropic effects, he appropriated and intervened in a contemporary debate about the balance of natural and supernatural forces and the power of the devil.” Thomas Hariot’s A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, which evaluated the economic potential of Virginia, was published in 1588. Thomas Hariot (ca. 1540-1621; also spelled Herriot), was an English mathematician, astronomer, linguist, and experimental scientist. In 1580, Hariot had been hired by Walter Raleigh (also spelled Ralegh) as a mathematics tutor and become Raleigh’s primary assistant in planning the English colonies in North Carolina. In the Americas, he learned the Algonquian language from two Virginia Indians. In her chapter in North American Exploration. Volume 1: A New World Disclosed, historian Karen Ordahl Kupperman writes: “Hariot, with his command of the language, gave a fully rounded picture of Indian life, religion, government, and social structure. He was sensitive to the changes being wrought in that life by the coming of Europeans; he reported the Indians’ agonized bewilderment over the disease that killed so many of them.” In her book On Savage Shores: How Indigenous Americans Discovered Europe, Caroline Dodds Pennock writes: “It seems that behind every successful invader or writer of this period is an Indigenous collaborator. For these men were not working alone but surrounded by Native people, men and women whose labour—whether given freely or not—should not be forgotten.” Caroline Dodds Pennock reports: “While in Ralegh’s household, Hariot met with two Algonquian-speaking men—Manteo and Wanchese—who had been brought to England by the 1584 expedition Ralegh funded to scope out the possibilities for settlement in the Americas.” From these men, he had learned Algonquian and invented a phonetic alphabet. Caroline Dodds Pennock writes: “This text is not the product of European research, a white man’s hard work of observation: this was a collaboration between Manteo and Hariot (and perhaps also Wanchese).” The 1590 edition of A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, published by Theodor de Bry, included etchings based on the maps produced by artist John White and Thomas Hariot and by White’s watercolors of Indian life.   The Europeans, firm in their belief that all people descended from Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, attempted to explain the presence of Indians in a land far away from where the Garden of Eden was supposed to have existed. In 1590, Spanish Jesuit missionary José de Acosta (1539-1600), in his Historia natural y moral de las Indias postulated that American Indians arrived in the New World by walking across a land bridge from Asia. He suggested that this migration may have taken place 2,000 years prior to the arrival of the Spanish.This reason was not based on Indian oral tradition or on any “hard” evidence. In his book Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America, anthropologist James Dixon writes:  “The reason he held this premise was that he believed that the human species had originated in the Old World based on the teachings of the Bible.” According to historian José Rabasa, in his book Inventing America: Spanish Historiography and the Formation of Eurocentralism: “But Acosta also faces the task of explaining how the descendants of Noah became the idolatrous barbarians of the New World. For this he provides a theory of their degeneration to a state of savagery and a posterior reinvention of culture under the tutelage of Satan.” In 1592, Theodor de Bry (1528-1598) published a multivolume work America, which became the standard reference work on the Americas. The work was illustrated with engravings based on drawings by Jacques Lemoyne. In his chapter in The Changing Presentation of the American Indian: Museums and Native Cultures, Evan Maurer reports that: “…the depictions of Native Americans in de Bry’s America are based on late-Renaissance models, which were themselves inspired by the much-admired classicism of Greece and Rome. These images were among the earliest ‘neoclassical’ portrayals of the American Indian in the romantic guise of ‘the noble savage.’” Theodor de Bry, a Protestant, had been forced to flee from his native Spanish-controlled Netherlands by the Inquisition and settled in Germany. Over the next few centuries, Europeans will continue to produce various histories of the Americas, some based on personal experience, some based on biblical interpretations, some based on documentary evidence and interviews. The sixteenth-century histories provided the basic patterns of the histories of the later centuries. More histories History 101: Current and past views on saving prehistoric American ruins History 101: The Coronado Expedition to the Southwest History 101: Queen Anne's War in New England History 101: Father Rales' War, religious conflict in colonial New England History 101: American exploration of the Northwest Coast 1787-1792 History 201: The Philippine-American War History 201: The Founding of Georgia History 201: The War of Jenkins Ear

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: History, JohnWhite, Tobacco, History101, PeterMartyrdAnghera, GonzaloFernndezdeOviedoyValds, BartolomdeLasCasas, FranciscoLpezdeGmara, GirolamoBenzoni, NicolasMonardes, ThomasHariot, TheodordeBry, JosdeAcosta, sixteenth-century] [Link to media]

— The Contributions of Native Americans and Alaska Natives to the U.S. Military Are Honored this Month

 

at 11/1/24 3:02pm

This November, we celebrate Native American Heritage Month, and get to honor Native Americans and Alaska Natives, who have served with distinction and constancy in the U.S. military. The theme for this year is, “Affirming Native Voices: Visibility - Leadership – Service”, affirming two centuries of proud and resolute service and the need to affirm native voices. We honor the service of the 150,000 Native American and Native Alaskan veterans whose service has strengthened the U.S. military and inspired countless people.  A History of Volunteering There have been Native Americans and Alaska Natives serving in the U.S. military in every major conflict of the last 200 years, from the Revolutionary War through D-Day to today’s conflicts. In fact, we owe the United States to Native Americans and Alaska Natives, because they fought to preserve its unity during the Civil War, when Gen. Ely S. Parker, a member of the Seneca Nation, served as aide to General Ulysses Grant, eventually writing the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox.  During the Vietnam War, 90% of the 42,000 Native Americans and Alaska Natives who served were volunteers. Native Americans have been crucial to preserving American unity and freedom and advancing democracy. The Navajo Code Talkers During the Second World War, Navajo Code Talkers, from the Navajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Lakota, Meskwaki and Comanche tribes, became legends of military folklore for using their native language as the basis of a special code that was used to transmit sensitive information. They also gave native translations for military ranks and equipment, which made it impossible for the energy to figure out what they were referring to. The Japanese, famed for their ability to break any code, were never able to break the Navajo code, helping the U.S. to win the war in the Pacific. In both world wars, and the Korean and Vietnam Wars, Navajo Code Talkers were vital for preserving information and ensuring safe communications for the U.S. military, making the signature operations of those wars possible, not just D-Day, but Paris’ liberation and the Battle of the Bulge. They faced enormous discrimination and they fought on, eventually being recognised with the passing of the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2002. In 2013, they were awarded the Congressional gold Medal, Congress’ highest award, in recognition of the exceptional valor they displayed and superior dedication. How to Join In Those who want to participate in honoring our Native American and Native Alaskan veterans can go to the Native American Heritage Observance, hosted by the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation  Command on Thursday, November 21, 2024, between 10am and 11am at the Myer Auditorium. The observance will also be live streamed on MS Teams. It is important that we do this. As the White House said in its press statement,  “During National Native American Heritage Month, we honor the history, rich cultures, and vast contributions of Native peoples.  We celebrate the hundreds of Tribal Nations that are ushering in a new era in our Nation-to-Nation relationships.  And we recommit to respecting Tribal sovereignty and self-determination and working in partnership with Tribal Nations to bring new prosperity and security to Native peoples.”

[Author: averagemec] [Category: NativeAmericanHeritageMonth, NativeAmericans, Nativeveterans] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: American Indians and the federal government 150 years ago, 1875

 

at 10/29/24 8:15am

In the United States, relationships with Indian nations are regulated at the federal level by Congress and are administered through the Department of the Interior. Congress is, of course, composed of elected officials who are supposed to represent the people. In 1874, Indians could not be American citizens and, therefore, could not vote. While Congress regulated Indian affairs, it did not represent Indians, nor did it solicit Indian testimony regarding bills which impacted Indians. In 1874, the United States government viewed Indians as living in a state of “barbarism.” Government policies were based on the fantasy that American Indians were nomadic hunters and gatherers and ignored the fact that most Indians at the beginning of the European invasion of North America were farmers. Also ignored were accounts of the early French and Spanish explorers who described Indian cities and the monumental architecture which they constructed. By 1874, the policies of the federal government regarding American Indians were fairly well established. American Indians were seen as barriers to the progress of civilization and policies were developed to place them on reservations. Then as the American hunger for land grew, the reservations were broken up so that “surplus” lands could be given to non-Indians. Historian Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., in his chapter in Legacy: New Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn, writes that the United States gave Indians three options: “…first, they could abandon everything that constituted their Indianness and turn into whites, accepted as whites by the white population; second, if they refused to adopt that option, they would have to move far away from the whites, out of sight and out of mind, giving up their land and resources and becoming in no way a physical or cultural threat to the whites; and, third, if they refused to become white or move away from them, they would have to be exterminated.” In1874, the Office of Indian Affairs (sometimes referred to as the Indian Office or the Indian Bureau; in the twentieth century it would become the Bureau of Indian Affairs) within the Department of the Interior was managed by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. This position was a political appointment and any experience with actual Indians was not required to be appointed to the position.  In 1874, Edward Parmelee Smith was serving as the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. His work with the American Missionary Association in New York City led to his appointment, as the policy at this time was to assign the administration of Indian reservations to Christian missionary organizations. In his biographical sketch of Smith in The Commissioners of Indian Affairs, 1824-1977, Richard Crawford writes: “Given his background, he strongly endorsed the government’s policy of seeking nominations for Indian agents from the leading religious denominations.” Richard Crawford also writes: “Among the hindrances to Indian progress he considered most serious were the government’s treatment of the tribes as sovereign or independent peoples, cash annuities to Indians stipulated by treaties, tribal ownership of land instead of individual property holdings, an inadequate system of criminal law for Indians and the whites who victimized them, the refusal of hostile Indians to remain on the reservations, and intertribal warfare. Smith supported the growing demand that Indians perform some kind of labor in return for supplies furnished by the government, even to the point of sanctioning the amending or annulling of treaties to effect that change.” Briefly described below are a few of the events relating to American Indians and the American government 150 years ago, in 1874. The War Against the Buffalo On the Great Plains, the desire to exterminate the Indians also included the extermination of the buffalo, which the military saw as the Indians’ commissary. By the end of the century, the buffalo herds had dwindled from millions to just a few hundred. The government viewed the extermination of Indians and buffalo as a way of making the Great Plains safe for the railroads, cattle raising, and farming.  General William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-1891) led the war against the buffalo. In his book Fierce Patriot: The Tangled Lives of William Tecumseh Sherman, Robert O’Connell writes: “To say that Sherman encouraged buffalo hunting completely understates the cases; he declared war on them, orchestrating the killing of roughly five million beasts between 1867 and 1874.” By 1874, the war against the buffalo had reached the point that the extinction of the species was in sight. In 1874, Congress voted overwhelmingly to stop the slaughter of the buffalo on the plains, but the bill was pocket vetoed by President Grant. In his 1929 book The Hunting of the Buffalo, historian E. Douglas Branch reports the incident this way: “Ulysses S. Grant received it and put the document into a pigeonhole for its India ink to become a rich brown before it was seen again. Or perhaps he touched the bill to his lamp, and lighted a cigar with it.” Labor Required In 1874 Congress passed a law which required Indian males between the ages of 18 and 45 to perform labor if they were to draw rations from the government. The law stemmed from Congressional concerns about the cost of the Indian Service. Timber Rights During the nineteenth century, the government policy was to move Indians onto reservations where they would be out of the way of American progress. Natural resources on the reservations such as minerals, timber, and water, however, were to be developed by non-Indians. It was not uncommon for the superintendents of the reservations to sell off resources such as timber with little, if any, consideration of Indian rights to these resources. In 1874, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Indians had only the right of occupancy on reservations and that the government owned the timber on the reservations. Civil Rights In 1874, American Indians were not U.S. citizens, nor could they become U.S. citizens. Therefore, the Secretary of the Interior ruled that the 14th Amendment did not give any land rights – such as homesteading – to civilized Indians (Christian Indians who spoke English) since they had not been citizens when the Amendment had been passed. The Secretary ruled that only an act of Congress could give the benefits of the land laws to Indians. Rights Ignored  In Oregon non-Indian settlers were invading and squatting on traditional Nez Perce lands in the Wallowa Valley. Concerned about this situation, President Grant had established a reservation for the Nez Perce in the Wallowa Valley by Executive Order in 1873. The following year, the Office of Indian Affairs notified the American settlers in the area that it had no intention of enforcing President Grant’s 1873 Executive Order which prohibited American settlement in the Wallowa Valley. The Office of Indian Affairs did not, however, inform the Nez Perce that the Executive Order was not going to be enforced. This set the stage for conflict in the area. Concerned about the volatility of the area, the non-treaty Nez Perce bands held a council at Camas Prairie near present-day Grangeville, Idaho. Those in attendance included Joseph, Ollokot, White Bird, Looking Glass, Red Owl, and Toohoolhoolzote. Toohoolhoolzote was regarded by the Americans as a hostile Dreamer medicine man. Three important Nez Perce warriors – Rainbow, Five Wounds, and Grizzly Bear Ferocious -- were also asked to speak to the issue of going to war against the Americans. The council decided against war. More 19th century American Indian histories Indians 101: American Indian religions 150 years ago, 1874 Indians 101: American Indian wars, conflicts, and battles 150 years ago, 1874 Indians 101: Sioux Indians and Black Hills gold 150 years ago, 1874 Indians 101: American Indian Reservations 150 years ago, 1874 Indians 101: American Indians in Oklahoma 150 years ago, 1874 Indians 101: American Indians and Christianity 150 years ago, 1874 Indians 101: American Indians and the federal government 150 years ago, 1873 Indians 101: American Indians and the Army 150 years ago, 1873

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, History, Indians101, NativeAmericanNetroots] [Link to media]

— Guy Seeking to Run Elections in AZ Arrested for Assault on Native Americans

 

at 10/26/24 12:52pm

A Republican candidate for an important elections job in Arizona was arrested for allegedly assaulting two Native Americans in a road rage incident. Timothy Jordan, who is one of the leaders of a gang of Trumpers seeking to take over the county, was earlier involved in incidents during early voting on an Apache reservation.  In addition to the assault charge, Jordan was being investigated for having a gun on school property. Navajo County is the size of Vermont, a 50-mile-wide strip of land stretching from the Utah state line to the Black River in central Arizona. The northern and southern portion of the county are part of the Navajo, Hopi and Apache reservations, with a section in the middle home to non-Natives, some of whom are rednecks.  The Show Low police said no documents on the situation could be made available until Monday morning.   Jordan is challenging Democrat Mike Sample for the job of County Recorder. The job of running elections has often fallen to the Recorder in Arizona. As the keeper of property ownership lists, the Recorder was a likely person to make up voting lists in the old days. They have kept the job despite the elimination of property ownership as a qualification to voting.  With Apache County and Coconino County, Navajo County is home to the Natives who gave Biden victory in Arizona in 2020. Republicans are working hard to keep Natives from voting.  Jonathan Nez, former president of the Navajo Nation, is running for the U.S. House in District 2, which includes many of Arizona’s Natives.  Some MAGA loyalists will continue to support Jordan, but other Republicans see him as an embarrassing violent idiot with no qualifications for the job.  If you would like to support Nez, please donate. 

[Author: EricAZ] [Category: Arizona, ElectionIntegrity, Recommended, VoterSuppression, ViolentAttach, NativesAttacked] [Link to media]

— Medicaid, Medicare to cover Traditional Indian Healing. /Code Talker John Kinsel Sr 1917-2024.

 

at 10/22/24 3:30pm

Earlier this month the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services announced a two-year pilot program to cover traditional Native American healing practices such as sweat lodges, talking circles, smudging, traditional foods, and others which address physical and mental health. The program will be available in California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Oregon. A drumming circle at a Native-led recovery treatment program in San Francisco. According to a letter sent from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, the program will be in effect from 16 October 2024 through 31 December 2026. In California, which is home to the largest Native American population in the US, Indian Health Service providers will be able to request reimbursement for their services beginning January 2025. Screenshot from a letter sent from CMS to the director of California's Medicaid program, Medi-Cal. A report from the National Council of Urban Indian Health, which discusses the impressive results of numerous studies regarding the efficacy of traditional Native American healing practices, is available as a free download here. You can read a recent press release by NCUIH containing information on each state's participation and pertinent links regarding coverage here. Medicine wheel diagram from the National Council of Urban Indian Health.                                            ••• John Kinsel Sr, Navajo Code Talker 1917-2024. One of the last remaining Navajo Code Talkers, John Kinsel Sr, has passed away aged 107. According to a statement by his son Ronald Kinsel, his father died peacefully in his sleep early on the morning of Saturday 18 October. John Kinsel Sr was born in Cove, Arizona in 1917, and attended Fort Defiance Boarding School at the age of six. Mr Kinsel enlisted in the US Marine Corps in 1942, serving with the 9th Marine Regiment and the 3rd Marine Division in the Pacific, including the Battle of Iwo Jima. Following the end of World War II he returned to Lukachukai, Arizona, where he lived for the rest of his life. He is remembered as a hero, a living symbol of Navajo cultural pride, and as a pillar of his community. The United States owes him, and every Code Talker, a debt of gratitude which we can never fully repay. (Though we should certainly try). Tribute to Navajo Code Talkers by artist Doug Hyde, 1989. This beautiful and impressive bronze stands in downtown Phoenix. One of my very favorite outdoor bronze statues.                                      ••••••• Thank you for reading. This is an open thread, all topics are welcome.

[Author: A Pagan in Arizona] [Category: CoffeeHour, Community, IndigenousPeoples, Medicaid, Medicare, NativeAmerican, OpenThread, StreetProphets, TraditionalHealing, NavajoCodeTalker] [Link to media]

— Indians 101: The Blackfoot Confederacy "War" in Montana, 1864-1865

 

at 10/22/24 8:15am

Contrary to popular mythology, all Indian tribes are not the same. They have different languages, different ceremonies and social customs, and different histories. From time to time, different tribes would come together to form loose confederacies. One of these is the Blackfoot Confederacy on the Northern Plains of what is now the state of Montana and the Canadian province of Alberta. In the nineteenth century, the Blackfoot Confederacy was primarily made up of three tribes with a similar cultural heritage: (1) Pikuni (also called Piegan or Peigan), (2) Kainah (also called Blood), and (3) Siksika (also called Northern Blackfoot). While these three tribes shared the same language, and many of the same ceremonies, they were politically independent. In the book Prayer to the Great Mystery: The Uncollected Writings and Photography of Edward S. Curtis, photographer Edward Curtis (1868- 1952) is quoted as reporting: “The Piegan, the Bloods, and the Blackfeet are so closely related that they have been designated collectively as Blackfeet.” In an article in the Western Historical Quarterly, Theodore Binnema reports on the Blackfoot Confederacy: “Because the Piegans, Bloods, and Siksikas spoke a common language, acknowledged a common history and ethnicity, and share many common interests, they tended to approach their neighbors similarly, but they were not a political unit.” In the nineteenth century, the homelands of the Blackfoot Confederacy were arbitrary divided into lands governed by Canada and lands governed by the United States. In 1864, Blackfoot Confederacy lands in the United States were placed in the Territory of Montana. The Organic Act which created the Territory declared that the rights of person and property of the Indian were not to be impaired. In general, the Americans living in the new territory ignored any potential rights of the aboriginal inhabitants and viewed them as unwanted intruders. One of the first acts of the newly formed Montana Territorial Assembly was to pass a resolution calling for the expropriation of Indian lands. In 1865, in response to an attack by a Blood war party led by Calf Shirt in which ten woodcutters were killed, the governor attempted to organize a militia to chastise the Indians. However, the Blood had already crossed the border into Canada and the militia was disbanded without seeing any action. Some of those who had volunteered for the militia had done so because they wanted to kill Indians. In 1866, violent Indian-hater John Morgan, who had led the unsuccessful militia group in an attempt to kill Indians, invited four Blackfoot Indians to his home under the pretense of giving them some whiskey. They were met by a group of his friends who hung three of them and shot the fourth as he was trying to escape. While there was no law enforcement response to the murders or any call for justice, there was Indian retaliation. A group of Kainai (Blood) raided a horse herd in the Sun River Valley and captured all of the horses and mules from a wagon train headed to Fort Benton. Chief Bull Head led a group of Northern Blackfoot warriors in an attack on the government farm at Sun River. They killed one employee and burned the buildings. John Morgan and his family took refuge with the Jesuits at Saint Peter’s Mission. In the meantime, the raiders killed his livestock, captured his horses, and then followed his trail to the mission. At the mission, the Blackfoot warriors slaughtered the cattle herd and killed the young herder. As a result of this attack, the Jesuits gave up on trying to pacify the Blackfoot: they closed the mission and moved back to the Flathead Reservation west of the Rocky Mountains. As a result of the Indian attacks, an unorganized band of non-Indians (described by some historians as “ruffians” but which may have included some prominent Montanans) attacked a small Blackfoot band near Fort Benton. They killed one Indian. The next day, they attacked another band, killed six Indians and scalped them. They then returned to Fort Benton where they conducted a so-called scalp dance in the street. The so-called Blackfoot Confederacy “War” of 1864-1865, didn’t really end as conflicts between the tribes and the Americans who invaded their homelands continued throughout much of the century. More nineteenth-century American Indian histories Indians 201: The Cayuse Indian War Indians 201: The Bannock Indian War Indians 101: The Sioux in Canada Indians 101: Utah's Walker War Indians 201: The war against the Yavapai Indians 101: The Tlingit Rebellion of 1802-1806 Indians 301: The Puget Sound War Indians 101: The 1874 Red River War in Texas

[Author: Ojibwa] [Category: AmericanIndians, History, Indians101, Montana, NativeAmericanNetroots, BlackfootIndians] [Link to media]

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